Waiting for Godot: The Never-Ending Clark–Kozma Debate in the Field of Educational Technology

Abstract

This review article examines the long-running Clark–Kozma debate on media and learning not simply as a disagreement between two scholars, but as a foundational epistemological discussion that has reshaped educational technology research, design principles, connections to learning theories, and practical priorities. Using the metaphor of Waiting for Godot, it reinterprets the debate historically, contrasting Clark’s method-centered and causally cautious stance with Kozma’s emphasis on media features, symbol systems, affordances, and cognitive-social processes. Drawing on recent literature, the article also shows how the debate gains renewed relevance in online learning, design-based research, inclusion, teacher and learner roles, and generative AI contexts.